1. There are also areas of rich, fertile soil because of major rivers
Tigris and the Euphrates…
Pic of tigris (shorter of the 2 rivers)
Euphrates originates in Turkey/ provides Syria with all its water
Tigris and Euphrates almost meet at Baghdad
The Tigris River forms the eastern boundary of Mesopotamia (meaning, in Greek, “between the rivers”), which is part of the “Fertile Crescent.” What are some key facts about the Tigris?
It’s not as long as the river with which it is usually paired—the Euphrates—which measures 1,740 miles (2,800 kilometers). The Tigris is about 1,150 miles (1,850 kilometers) long.
The word Tigris is based on an “Old Persian” word—Tigra—which means “fast” or “arrow-like."
The river rises in the eastern Taurus mountains, in southern Turkey, and flows from its headwaters, at Lake Hazar, south toward the Persian Gulf.
On its way, it skirts the northeastern tip of Syria (forming the border between that country and Turkey), then passes through Iraq.
In the southern part of Iraq, the Tigris merges with the Euphrates to form the Shatt al Arab which flows into the Persian Gulf. A portion of the Shatt al Arab forms part of the border between Iraq and Iran.
Many civilizations have thrived along the banks of the Tigris, including during ancient times. One of its most-notable civilizations was the Mesopotamian Empire.
The Tigris’ drainage basin covers around 144,788 square miles (375,000 square km). Its waters come from melting snow and winter rains. During the spring melt, the river’s flood waters can be extremely fast-moving.
In addition to melting snow and winter rains, the Tigris also gets waters from four strong tributaries:  the Great Zab, Little Zab, ‘Uzaym (Adhaim) and Diyala rivers.
Because the Tigris’ flooding can be very unpredictable, not many great cities have been built along its banks. The ancient capitals of Assyria (Ninevah and Calah, on the east bank, and Ashur, on the west) together with Opis (located somewhere near Baghdad) are notable exceptions.
Flooding of the Tigris usually occurs about a month before flooding of the Euphrates. This is due to the shorter length of the Tigris.
Baghdad, the capital of today’s Iraq, is located on both banks of the Tigris while Mosul, the site of Iraq’s largest dam, is principally located on the west bank. (Mosul is opposite the remains of ancient Ninevah.)
Not all of the Tigris River is navigable by shallow-draft vessels. Upstream, during ancient times, people used rafts to reach the city of Ninevah. Today people still use rafts to reach the city of Mosul.
The last time anyone saw a lion along the Tigris River was in 1926.
Around 55 fish species live in the Tigris. Although fishing was once very important to people living along the river’s banks, pollution and wars have harmed the fishing industry.
The Tigris, like the Euphrates, has seen its share of battles from ancient history until the 21st century.

2. The Nile River in Egypt is the longest river in the world
The Jordan River lies in a rift valley & has Biblical ties
The Jordan Rift Valley was formed many millions of years ago in the Miocene epoch ( Myr ago) when the Arabian Plate moved northward and then eastward away from Africa. One million years later, the land between the Mediterranean and the Jordan Rift Valley rose so that the sea water stopped flooding the area.
The geological and environmental evolution of the valley since its inception in the Oligocene can be seen in a variety of sedimentary and magmatic rock units, preserved as continuous sequences in the deeper basins. The outcropping formations around the basins represent alternating deposition and erosion phases.[1]
The lowest point in the Jordan Rift Valley is in the Dead Sea, the lowest spot of which is 790 metres below sea level. The shore of the Dead Sea is the lowest land on earth, at 400 meters (about 1300 feet) below sea level. Rising sharply to almost 1,000 meters (almost 3,300 feet) in the west, and similarly in the east, the rift is a significant topographic feature over which a few narrow paved roads and difficult mountain tracks lead.[2] The valley north of the Dead Sea has long been a site of agriculture because of water available from the Jordan River and numerous springs located on the valley's flanks.
A rift valley is a lowland region that forms where Earth’s tectonic plates move apart, or rift. Rift valleys are found both on land and at the bottom of the ocean, where they are created by the process of seafloor spreading. Rift valleys differ from river valleys and glacial valleys in that they are created by tectonic activity and not the process of erosion.
Tectonic plates are huge, rocky slabs of Earth's lithosphere—its crust and upper mantle. Tectonic plates are constantly in motion—shifting against each other in fault zones, falling beneath one another in a process called subduction, crashing against one another at convergent plate boundaries, and tearing apart from each other at divergent plate boundaries
4,160 miles
Longest river in the world
Mississippi miles
3767 Missouri
Role of alluvial soil
90% of the people in Egypt live along the Nile Delta
Jordan River empties into the Dead Sea
Jordan River, Arabic Nahr Al-Urdun, Hebrew Ha-Yarden,  Jordan River valley© bumihills/Shutterstock.comriver of southwestern Asia, in the Middle East region. It lies in a structural depression and has the lowest elevation of any river in the world.
The river rises on the slopes of Mount Hermon, on the border between Syria and Lebanon, and flows southward through northern Israel to the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberius). Exiting the sea, it continues south, dividing Israel and the Israeli-occupied West Bank to the west from Jordan to the east before emptying into the Dead Sea. The surface of the Dead Sea, at an elevation of about 1,410 feet (430 metres) below sea level in the mid-2010s, is the lowest land point on Earth.
The Jordan River is more than 223 miles (360 km) in length, but, because its course is meandering, the actual distance between its source and the Dead Sea is less than 124 miles (200 km). After 1948 the river marked the frontier between Israel and Jordan from just south of the Sea of Galilee to the point where the Yābis River flows into it from the east (left) bank. Since 1967, however, when Israeli forces occupied the West Bank (i.e., the territory on the west bank of the river south of its confluence with the Yābis), the Jordan has served as the cease-fire line as far south as the Dead Sea.
The river was called the Aulon by the Greeks and is sometimes called Al-Sharīʿah (“Watering Place”) by the Arabs. Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike revere the Jordan. It was in its waters that Jesus was baptized by St. John the Baptist. The river has remained a religious destination and a site for baptisms.
Physical environment
Jordan RiverDavid BjorgenThe Jordan Valley constitutes a segment of the extensive East African Rift System, a rift valley running north and south that extends from southern Turkey southward via the Red Sea and into eastern Africa. The valley itself is a long and narrow trough, averaging about 6 miles (10 km) in width but becoming narrower in some places—e.g., at each end of the Sea of Galilee. Throughout its course the valley lies much lower than the surrounding landscape, especially in the south, where the surrounding land can rise some 3,000 feet (900 metres) or more above the river. The valley walls are steep, sheer, and bare, and they are broken only by the gorges of tributary wadis (seasonal watercourses).
The Jordan River has three principal sources, all of which rise at the foot of Mount Hermon. The longest of those is the Ḥāṣbānī, which rises in Lebanon, near Ḥāṣbayyā, at an elevation of 1,800 feet (550 metres). From the east, in Syria, flows the Bāniyās River. Between the two is the Dan River, the waters of which are particularly fresh.
Just inside Israel, those three rivers join together in the Ḥula Valley. The plain of the Ḥula Valley was formerly occupied by a lake and marshes, but in the 1950s some 23 square miles (60 square km) were drained to form agricultural land. By the 1990s much of the valley’s soil had been degraded, and portions of the area had become flooded. It was decided to retain the lake and surrounding wetlands area as a protected nature reserve, and some of the plants and animals (notably migratory birds) returned to the region.
At the southern end of the valley, the Jordan has cut a gorge through a basaltic barrier. The river then drops sharply down to the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. That lake, which historically was measured at 686 feet (209 metres) below sea level, has for decades averaged some 6.5 to 13 feet (2 to 4 metres) lower annually than that value. The lake nonetheless helps govern the river’s rate of flow. Exiting from the southern shore of the lake, the Jordan receives its main tributary, the Yarmūk River, which marks part of the frontier between Syria and Jordan. It is then joined by two more tributaries, the Ḥarod on the right bank and the Yābis on the left. The Jordan River’s plain then spreads out to a width of about 15 miles (24 km) and becomes very regular. The flat arid terraces of that area, known as the Ghawr (Ghor), are cut here and there by wadis or rivers into rocky towers, pinnacles, and badlands, forming a maze of ravines and sharp crests that resemble a lunar landscape.
The valley that the Jordan has cut into the plain is between about 1,300 and 10,000 feet (400 and 3,000 metres) wide and about 50 to 200 feet (15 to 60 metres) deep. Along that stretch, the Jordan’s floodplain is known as the Zūr, and it describes so many meanders that, although it course runs for some 135 miles (215 km), the actual distance it covers between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea is only 65 miles (105 km). The Zūr, which floods frequently, was formerly covered with thickets of reeds, tamarisk, willows, and white poplars, but, since dams were built to control the river’s flow, that land has been converted to irrigated fields. Finally, the Jordan drains into the Dead Sea through a gently sloping broad delta.
Although the bordering plateaus receive relatively abundant rainfall, the Jordan Valley itself is not well watered. The Ḥula Valley receives about 22 inches (550 mm) a year, whereas only about 3 inches (75 mm) fall north of the Dead Sea. Winters along the river are mild, especially in the south, but summers are torrid, again increasingly toward the south.
The Jordan is fed by rains falling on the neighbouring plateaus; the waters then flow downward through rivers or wadis. The Jordan itself is shallow. Its high-water period lasts from January to March, while its low-water period occurs at the end of summer and the beginning of autumn. The current is relatively swift, and the river transports a considerable load of silt. The rate of flow, however, diminishes downstream as a result of evaporation losses and the seeping away of water. Inflow from the Yarmūk River once nearly doubled the Jordan’s flow, but the Yarmūk’s contribution was subsequently reduced as a result of damming upstream. The existence of thermal springs, notably in the Tiberias region on the western side of the Sea of Galilee, as well as the concentration of gypsum, give the Jordan’s waters a relatively high degree of salinity, which can leave a salt residue in the soil when the water is used for irrigation.

3. Other notable bodies of water in the area include:
Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea [Lat.,=in the midst of lands], the world's largest inland sea, c.965,000 sq mi (2,499,350 sq km), surrounded by Europe, Asia, and Africa.
The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of 2.5million sq km (965,000 sq mi) and has an average depth of 1,500 metres (4,900 feet).
2. The French Open tennis stadium is not the only thing named after Roland Garros: the airport on Réunion in the Indian Ocean bears his name.
3. Peugeot has introduced Roland Garros cars into its ranges.
4. The Romans called the Mediterranean Mare Nostrum (Our Sea).
5. Roland Garros was the first man to shoot down an enemy plane by firing through his propellor.
6. In 2008, artist Saimir Strati made his Homage to Mediterranean Life from 229,764 wine corks.
The Romans called the Mediterranean Mare Nostrum meaning Our Sea
7. The coast of the Mediterranean runs past 22 countries.
8. The five largest islands in the Mediterranean are Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, Corsica and Crete.
9. The only island nations in the Mediterranean are Malta and Cyprus.
10. Roland Garros was shot down and captured by the Germans in the First World War, escaped from a prisoner of war camp and rejoined the French air force. He was shot down again, and killed in 1918.Ten things you never knew about... the Mediterranean
Related articles
Geography The Mediterranean is c.2,400 mi (3,900 km) long with a maximum width of c.1,000 mi (1,600 km); its greatest depth is c.14,450 ft (4,400 m), off Cape Matapan, Greece. It connects with the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar; with the Black Sea through the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus; and with the Red Sea through the Suez Canal. Its chief divisions are the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Ionian, and Aegean seas; its chief islands are Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, Cyprus, Malta, Rhodes, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, the Sporades, the Balearic Islands, and the Ionian Islands. Shallows (Adventure Bank) between Sicily and Cape Bon, Tunisia, divide the Mediterranean into two main basins. The sea is of higher salinity than the Atlantic and has little variation in tides. The largest rivers that flow into it are the Po, Rhône, Ebro, and Nile. The shores are chiefly mountainous. Earthquakes and volcanic disturbances are frequent. The region around the sea has a warm, dry climate characterized by abundant sunshine. Strong local winds, such as the hot, dry sirocco from the south and the cold, dry mistral and bora from the north, blow across the sea. Fish (about 400 species), sponges, and corals are plentiful. In addition, oil and natural gas have been found in several sections of the sea. The overuse of the sea's natural and marine resources continues to be a problem. History Some of the most ancient civilizations (see Aegean civilization) flourished around the Mediterranean. It was opened as a highway for commerce by merchants trading from Phoenicia. Carthage, Greece, Sicily, and Rome were rivals for dominance of its shores and trade; under the Roman Empire it became virtually a Roman lake and was called Mare Nostrum [our sea]. Later, the Byzantine Empire and the Arabs dominated the Mediterranean. Between the 11th and 14th cent., Italian city trading states such as Genoa, Venice, and Barcelona dominated the region; they struggled with the Ottomans for naval supremacy, particularly in the E Mediterranean. Products of Asia passed to Europe over Mediterranean trade routes until the establishment of a route around the Cape of Good Hope (late 15th cent.). With the opening of the Suez Canal (1869) the Mediterranean resumed its importance as a link on the route to the East. The development of the northern regions of Africa and of oil fields in the Middle East has increased its trade. Its importance as a trade link and as a route for attacks on Europe resulted in European rivalry for control of its coasts and islands and led to campaigns in the region during both world wars. Since World War II the Mediterranean region has been of strategic importance to both the United States and, until its dissolution, the Soviet Union. In 1995 countries bordering the Mediterranean signed a pact agreeing to protect it by eliminating toxic waste disposal there over a 10-year period.

4. The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed inland body of water
World’s largest inland sea; use to be connected to the black sea and mediterranean
Caspian is shrinking from evaporation and reduction of water flowing in from the Volga; its’s source
Due to the current inflow of fresh water, the Caspian Sea is a freshwater lake in its northern portions. It is more saline on the Iranian shore, where the catchment basin contributes little flow. Currently, the mean salinity of the Caspian is one third that of Earth's oceans
The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed inland body of water on Earth by area, variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea.[2][3] It is in an endorheic basin (it has no outflows) located between Europe and Asia.[4] It is bounded to the northeast by Kazakhstan, to the northwest by Russia, to the west by Azerbaijan, to the south by Iran, and to the southeast by Turkmenistan.
The Caspian Sea lies to the east of the Caucasus Mountains and to the west of the vast steppe of Central Asia. Its northern part, the Caspian Depression, is one of the lowest points on Earth. The ancient inhabitants of its coast perceived the Caspian Sea as an ocean, probably because of its saltiness and large size.
The sea has a surface area of 371,000 km2 (143,200 sq mi) (not including its detached lagoon of Garabogazköl Aylagy) and a volume of 78,200 km3 (18,800 cu mi).[5] It has a salinity of approximately 1.2% (12 g/l), about a third of the salinity of most seawater.
The word Caspian is derived from the name of the Caspi, an ancient people who lived to the southwest of the sea in Transcaucasia.[6] Strabo wrote that "to the country of the Albanians belongs also the territory called Caspiane, which was named after the Caspian tribe, as was also the sea; but the tribe has now disappeared".[7] Moreover, the Caspian Gates, which is the name of a region in Iran's Tehran province, possibly indicates that they migrated to the south of the sea. The Iranian city of Qazvin shares the root of its name with that of the sea. In fact, the traditional Arabic name for the sea itself is Bahr al-Qazwin (Sea of Qazvin).[8]
In classical antiquity among Greeks and Persians it was called the Hyrcanian Ocean.[9] In Persian antiquity, as well as in modern Iran, it is known as the Mazandaran Sea (Persian: دریای مازندران‎‎); it is also sometimes referred to as دریای خزر, Daryā-e Xazar in Iran.[10] Ancient Arabic sources refer to it as Baḥr Gīlān (بحر گیلان) meaning "the Gilan Sea".
Turkic languages refer to the lake as Khazar Sea. For instance, in Turkmen, the name is Hazar deňizi, in Azeri, it is Xəzər dənizi, and in modern Turkish, it is Hazar denizi. In all these cases, the second word simply means "sea", and the first word refers to the historical Khazars who had a large empire based to the north of the Caspian Sea between the 7th and 10th centuries. An exception is Kazakh, where it is called Каспий теңізі, Kaspiy teñizi (Caspian Sea).
Old Russian sources call it the Khvalyn or Khvalis Sea (Хвалынское море / Хвалисское море) after the name of Khwarezmia.[11] In modern Russian, it is called Каспи́йское мо́ре, Kaspiyskoye more.
Formation[edit]
Physical characteristics[edit]
The Caspian Sea, like the Aral Sea, Black Sea, and Lake Urmia, is a remnant of the ancient Paratethys Sea. It became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago due to tectonic uplift and a fall in sea level. During warm and dry climatic periods, the landlocked sea almost dried up, depositing evaporitic sediments like halite that were covered by wind-blown deposits and were sealed off as an evaporite sink[12] when cool, wet climates refilled the basin.[13] Due to the current inflow of fresh water, the Caspian Sea is a freshwater lake in its northern portions. It is more saline on the Iranian shore, where the catchment basin contributes little flow. Currently, the mean salinity of the Caspian is one third that of Earth's oceans. The Garabogazköl embayment, which dried up when water flow from the main body of the Caspian was blocked in the 1980s but has since been restored, routinely exceeds oceanic salinity by a factor of 10.[2]
Geography[edit]
Map of the Caspian Sea, yellow shading indicates Caspian drainage basin. (Since this map was drawn, the adjacent Aral Sea has greatly decreased in size)
The Caspian Sea is the largest inland body of water in the world and accounts for 40 to 44% of the total lacustrine waters of the world.[14] The coastlines of the Caspian are shared by Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan. The Caspian is divided into three distinct physical regions: the Northern, Middle, and Southern Caspian.[15] The Northern–Middle boundary is the Mangyshlak Threshold, which runs through Chechen Island and Cape Tiub-Karagan. The Middle–Southern boundary is the Apsheron Threshold, a sill of tectonic origin between the Eurasian continent and an oceanic remnant,[16] that runs through Zhiloi Island and Cape Kuuli.[17] The Garabogazköl Bay is the saline eastern inlet of the Caspian, which is part of Turkmenistan and at times has been a lake in its own right due to the isthmus that cuts it off from the Caspian.
Differences between the three regions are dramatic. The Northern Caspian only includes the Caspian shelf,[18] and is very shallow; it accounts for less than 1% of the total water volume with an average depth of only 5–6 metres (16–20 ft). The sea noticeably drops off towards the Middle Caspian, where the average depth is 190 metres (620 ft).[17] The Southern Caspian is the deepest, with oceanic depths of over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The Middle and Southern Caspian account for 33% and 66% of the total water volume, respectively.[15] The northern portion of the Caspian Sea typically freezes in the winter, and in the coldest winters ice forms in the south as well.[19]
Over 130 rivers provide inflow to the Caspian, with the Volga River being the largest. A second affluent, the Ural River, flows in from the north, and the Kura River flows into the sea from the west. In the past, the Amu Darya (Oxus) of Central Asia in the east often changed course to empty into the Caspian through a now-desiccated riverbed called the Uzboy River, as did the Syr Darya farther north. The Caspian also has several small islands; they are primarily located in the north and have a collective land area of roughly 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi). Adjacent to the North Caspian is the Caspian Depression, a low-lying region 27 metres (89 ft) below sea level. The Central Asian steppes stretch across the northeast coast, while the Caucasus mountains hug the western shore. The biomes to both the north and east are characterized by cold, continental deserts. Conversely, the climate to the southwest and south are generally warm with uneven elevation due to a mix of highlands and mountain ranges; the drastic changes in climate alongside the Caspian have led to a great deal of biodiversity in the region.[2]
The Caspian Sea has numerous islands throughout, all of them near the coasts; none in the deeper parts of the sea. Ogurja Ada is the largest island. The island is 37 km (23 mi) long, with gazelles roaming freely on it. In the North Caspian, the majority of the islands are small and uninhabited, like the Tyuleniy Archipelago, an Important Bird Area (IBA), although some of them have human settlements.
Hydrology[edit]
Caspian Sea near Aktau, Mangistau region, Kazakhstan.
The Caspian has characteristics common to both seas and lakes. It is often listed as the world's largest lake, although it is not a freshwater lake. It contains about 3.5 times more water, by volume, than all five of North America's Great Lakes combined. The Caspian was once part of the Tethys Ocean, but became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago due to plate tectonics.[14] The Volga River (about 80% of the inflow) and the Ural River discharge into the Caspian Sea, but it has no natural outflow other than by evaporation. Thus the Caspian ecosystem is a closed basin, with its own sea level history that is independent of the eustatic level of the world's oceans.
The level of the Caspian has fallen and risen, often rapidly, many times over the centuries. Some Russian historians[who?] claim that a medieval rising of the Caspian, perhaps caused by the Amu Darya changing its inflow to the Caspian from the 13th century to the 16th century, caused the coastal towns of Khazaria, such as Atil, to flood. In 2004, the water level was 28 m (92 ft) below sea level.
Over the centuries, Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchrony with the estimated discharge of the Volga, which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin. Precipitation is related to variations in the amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior, and they in turn are affected by cycles of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Thus levels in the Caspian Sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North Atlantic thousands of miles to the northwest.[citation needed]
The last short-term sea-level cycle started with a sea-level fall of 3 m (9.84 ft) from 1929 to 1977, followed by a rise of 3 m (9.84 ft) from 1977 until Since then smaller oscillations have taken place.[20]
Environmental degradation[edit]

5. The Aral Sea use to be one of the largest lakes in the world, but it has since shrunk incredibly over the years
Aral Sea Use to be really large
Its water source has been diverted to irrigation
Also subject to evaporation
The Aral Sea is situated in Central Asia, between the Southern part of Kazakhstan and Northern Uzbekistan. Up until the third quarter of the 20th century it was the world?s fourth largest saline lake, and contained 10grams of salt per liter. The two rivers that feed it are the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, respectively reaching the Sea through the South and the North. The Soviet government decided in the 1960s to divert those rivers so that they could irrigate the desert region surrounding the Sea in order to favor agriculture rather than supply the Aral Sea basin. The reason why we decided to explore the implications up to today of this human alteration of the environment is precisely that certain characteristics of the region, from its geography to its population growth, account for dramatic consequences since the canals have been dug. Those consequences range from unexpected climate feedbacks to public health issues, affecting the lives of millions of people in and out of the region.
By establishing a program to promote agriculture and especially that of cotton, Soviet government led by Khrouchtchev in the 1950s deliberately deprived the Aral Sea of its two main sources of water income, which almost immediately led to less water arriving to the sea. Not only was all this water being diverted into canals at the expense of the Aral Sea supply, but the majority of it was being soaked up by the desert and blatantly wasted (between 25% and 75% of it, depending on the time period). The water level in the Aral Sea started drastically decreasing from the 1960s onward. In normal conditions, the Aral Sea gets approximately one fifth of its water supply through rainfall, while the rest is delivered to it by the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. Evaporation causes the water level to decrease by the same amount that flows into the Sea, making it sustainable as long as inflow is equal to evaporation on average. Therefore the diversion of rivers is at the origin of the imbalance that caused the sea to slowly desiccate over the last 4 decades.
Level of salinity rose from approximately 10g/l to often more than 100g/l in the remaining Southern Aral. Salinity of the rivers varies with place and time, as well as through the seasons. When going through the desert, rivers often collect some salt compounds residues in the ground that result in higher salinity, but may well be lowered again after going through irrigated lands. Dams also affect salinity, notably by reducing its variability with the seasons. Smaller lakes within the Aral Sea that have stopped being fed by river flows tend to have higher salinity due to evaporation, causing some or all fishes that either survived or had been reintroduced in the 1990s to die. Even re-watering those lakes does not compensate for the increased salinity over the years. In 1998, water level was down by 20m, with a total volume of 210km3 compared to 1,060km3 in Most of the changes in climate and landscape in the Aral Sea basin that we are about to explore are at the least indirect products of Human induced changes. While we must remember at all times that society is responsible for the crisis that has unfolded in and around the Aral, the point we want to make is that most of the actual changes that have afflicted the Sea since the 1960s are the result of our environment’s reaction to the stresses society has imposed on it. Thus, the difficulty lies as much in understanding the way climate and other natural systems function as in being capable of weighing the potential consequences of our actions before we undertake them. Risk assessment combined with scientific understanding should undercut our actions more efficiently; adding an ethical dimension to the equation remains more than welcome in addition to those more accessible and quantifiable factors, but is too fragile to be the centerpiece on which our decisions rely before we commit to large scale actions which can often, as we are about to see, engender even larger responses from our environment.
The Aral Sea (Kazakh: Арал Теңізі Aral Teñizi; Mongolian: Арал тэнгис; Russian: Ара́льское море, tr. Aral'skoye Morye; IPA: [ɐˈralʲskəjə ˈmorʲɪ]; Tajik: Баҳри Арал Bahri Aral; older Persian: دریاچه خوارزم‎‎ Daryâche Khârazm) was an endorheic lake lying between Kazakhstan (Aktobe and Kyzylorda Regions) in the north and Uzbekistan (Karakalpakstan autonomous region) in the south. The name roughly translates as "Sea of Islands", referring to over 1,100 islands that once dotted its waters; in the Turkic languages aral means "island, archipelago". The Aral Sea drainage basin encompasses Uzbekistan and parts of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Afghanistan.[1]
Formerly one of the four largest lakes in the world with an area of 68,000 km2 (26,300 sq mi), the Aral Sea has been steadily shrinking since the 1960s after the rivers that fed it were diverted by Soviet irrigation projects. By 2007, it had declined to 10% of its original size, splitting into four lakes – the North Aral Sea, the eastern and western basins of the once far larger South Aral Sea, and one smaller lake between the North and South Aral Seas.[4] By 2009, the southeastern lake had disappeared and the southwestern lake had retreated to a thin strip at the western edge of the former southern sea; in subsequent years, occasional water flows have led to the southeastern lake sometimes being replenished to a small degree.[5] Satellite images taken by NASA in August 2014 revealed that for the first time in modern history the eastern basin of the Aral Sea had completely dried up.[6] The eastern basin is now called the Aralkum desert.
In an ongoing effort in Kazakhstan to save and replenish the North Aral Sea, a dam project was completed in 2005; in 2008, the water level in this lake had risen by 12 m (39 ft) compared to Salinity has dropped, and fish are again found in sufficient numbers for some fishing to be viable.[7] The maximum depth of the North Aral Sea is 42 m (138 ft) (as of 2008).[2]
The shrinking of the Aral Sea has been called "one of the planet's worst environmental disasters".[8][9] The region's once-prosperous fishing industry has been essentially destroyed, bringing unemployment and economic hardship. The Aral Sea region is also heavily polluted, with consequential serious public health problems
The terms "mistake of nature" and "useless evaporator" were used to describe the Aral Sea by Aleksandr Voeikov, a Russian climatologist.[14]
In the early 1960s,[15] the Soviet government decided the two rivers that fed the Aral Sea, the Amu Darya in the south and the Syr Darya in the east, would be diverted to irrigate the desert, in an attempt to grow rice, melons, cereals, and cotton.
This was part of the Soviet plan for cotton, or "white gold", to become a major export. This temporarily succeeded, and in 1988, Uzbekistan was the world's largest exporter of cotton.[16]
The construction of irrigation canals began on a large scale in the 1940s.[clarification needed] Many of the canals were poorly built, allowing water to leak or evaporate. From the Qaraqum Canal, the largest in Central Asia, perhaps 30 to 75% of the water went to waste. Today,[when?] only 12% of Uzbekistan's irrigation canal length is waterproofed.
Of the 47,750 km of interfarm irrigation channels in the basin, only 28% have antifiltration linings. Only 77% of farm intakes have flow gauges, and of the 268,500 km of onfarm channels, only 21% have anti-filtration linings, which retain on average 15% more water than unlined channels.[17]
By 1960, between 20 and 60 km3 (4.8 and 14.4 cu mi) of water were going each year to the land instead of the sea. Most of the sea's water supply had been diverted, and in the 1960s, the Aral Sea began to shrink. From 1961 to 1970, the Aral's level fell at an average of 20 cm (7.9 in) a year; in the 1970s, the average rate nearly tripled to 50–60 cm (20–24 in) per year, and by the 1980s, it continued to drop, now with a mean of 80–90 cm (31–35 in) each year. The rate of water usage for irrigation continued to increase; the amount of water taken from the rivers doubled between 1960 and 2000, and cotton production nearly doubled in the same period.
The disappearance of the lake was no surprise to the Soviets; they expected it to happen long before. As early as 1964, Aleksandr Asarin at the Hydroproject Institute pointed out that the lake was doomed, explaining, "It was part of the five-year plans, approved by the council of ministers and the Politburo. Nobody on a lower level would dare to say a word contradicting those plans, even if it was the fate of the Aral Sea."[18]
The reaction to the predictions varied. Some Soviet experts apparently considered the Aral to be "nature's error", and a Soviet engineer said in 1968, "it is obvious to everyone that the evaporation of the Aral Sea is inevitable."[19] On the other hand, starting in the 1960s, a large-scale project was proposed to redirect part of the flow of the rivers of the Ob basin to Central Asia over a gigantic canal system. Refilling of the Aral Sea was considered as one of the project's main goals. However, due to its staggering costs and the negative public opinion in Russia proper, the federal authorities abandoned the project by 1986.[20]
From 1960 to 1998, the sea's surface area shrank by about 60%, and its volume by 80%. In 1960, the Aral Sea had been the world's fourth-largest lake, with an area around 68,000 km2 (26,000 sq mi) and a volume of 1,100 km3 (260 cu mi); by 1998, it had dropped to 28,687 km2 (11,076 sq mi) and eighth largest. Over the same time period, its salinity increased from about 10 g/l to about 45 g/l.[citation needed]
In 1987, the continuing shrinkage split the lake into two separate bodies of water, the North Aral Sea (the Lesser Sea, or Small Aral Sea) and the South Aral Sea (the Greater Sea, or Large Aral Sea).
In June 1991, Uzbekistan gained independence from the Soviet Union. Craig Murray, a UK ambassador to Uzbekistan in 2002, described the independence as a way for Islam Karimov to consolidate his power rather than a move away from a Soviet-style economy and its philosophy of exploitation of the land. Murray attributes the shrinkage of the Aral Sea in the 1990s to Karimov's cotton policy. The government maintained a massive irrigation system which Murray described as massively wasteful, with most of the water being lost through evaporation before reaching the cotton. Crop rotation was not used, and the depleted soil and monoculture required massive quantities of pesticides and fertilizer. The runoff from the fields washed these chemicals into the shrinking sea, creating severe pollution and health problems. Murray compared the system to the slavery system in the pre-Civil War United States; forced labor was used, and profits were siphoned off by the powerful and well-connected. Murray contrasts this to Kazakhstan, where the cotton industry had been privatized.[21]
By summer 2003, the South Aral Sea was vanishing faster than predicted. In the deepest parts of the sea, the bottom waters were saltier than the top, and not mixing. Thus, only the top of the sea was heated in the summer, and it evaporated faster than would otherwise be expected. In 2003, the South Aral further divided into eastern and western basins.
In 2004, the Aral Sea's surface area was only 17,160 km2 (6,630 sq mi), 25% of its original size, and a nearly five-fold increase in salinity had killed most of its natural flora and fauna. By 2007, the sea's area had further shrunk to 10% of its original size, and the salinity of the remains of the South Aral had increased to levels in excess of 100 g/l.[4] (By comparison, the salinity of ordinary seawater is typically around 35 g/l; the Dead Sea's salinity varies between 300 and 350 g/l.) The decline of the North Aral has now been partially reversed following construction of a dam (see below), but the remnants of the South Aral continue to disappear and its drastic shrinkage has created the Aralkum, a desert on the former lake bed.
The inflow of groundwater into the South Aral Sea will probably not in itself be able to stop the desiccation, especially without a change in irrigation practices.[22] This inflow of about 4 km3 (0.96 cu mi) per year is larger than previously estimated. The groundwater originates in the Pamirs and Tian Shan Mountains and finds its way through geological layers to a fracture zone[23] at the bottom of the Aral.

6. There is also the historic Black Sea
The Dead Sea is the lowest and saltiest body of water in the world
The Black Sea is a sea between Southeastern Europe and Western Asia. It is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus, and drains through the Mediterranean into the Atlantic Ocean, via the Aegean Sea and various straits. The Bosphorus Strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the Strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean Sea region of the Mediterranean. These waters separate eastern Europe and western Asia. The Black Sea is also connected to the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Kerch.
The Black Sea has an area of 436,400 km2 (168,500 sq mi) (not including the Sea of Azov),[1] a maximum depth of 2,212 m (7,257 ft),[2] and a volume of 547,000 km3 (131,000 cu mi).[3] The Black Sea forms in an east-west trending elliptical depression which lies between Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine.[4] It is constrained by the Pontic Mountains to the south and by the Caucasus Mountains to the east, and features a wide shelf to the northwest. The longest east-west extent is about 1,175 km (730 mi).
Important cities along the coast include Batumi, Burgas, Constanța, Giresun, Hopa, Istanbul, Kerch, Mangalia, Năvodari, Novorossiysk, Odessa, Ordu, Poti, Rize, Sinop, Samsun, Sevastopol, Sochi, Sozopol, Sukhumi, Trabzon, Varna, Yalta and Zonguldak.
The Black Sea has a positive water balance; that is, a net outflow of water 300 km3 (72 cu mi) per year through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea. Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea as part of a two-way hydrological exchange. The Black Sea outflow is cooler and less saline, and floats over the warm, more saline Mediterranean inflow – as a result of differences in density caused by differences in salinity – leading to a significant anoxic layer well below the surface waters. The Black Sea also receives river water from large Eurasian fluvial systems to the north of the Sea, of which the Don, Dnieper and Danube are the most significant.
In the past, the water level has varied significantly. Due to these variations in the water level in the basin, the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been land. At certain critical water levels it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established. It is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the world ocean. When this hydrological link is not present, the Black Sea is an endorheic basin, operating independently of the global ocean system, like the Caspian Sea for example. Currently the Black Sea water level is relatively high, thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Turkish Straits connect the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea, and comprise the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles.
Strabo thinks that the Black Sea was called "inhospitable" before Greek colonization, because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes, and that the name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians had colonized, as it were making it part of the Greek civilization.
Black Sea is one of the major water bodies and a famous inland sea of the world. It has been famous for a long time, mainly because of the name that denotes rather inhospitable nature of this sea. For a long time, the lack of hospitability of this sea was attributed to difficulty in its navigation.
However, with time its image as one of the most difficult water bodies changed but the name remained. But still, there are a lot of interesting Black Sea facts that must be known. We enumerate 10 of the most important facts..
1.  Surrounded by Six Countries : Geography and location
The most interesting thing about this sea is its map. The map of Black Sea flaunts its 159,600 sq mi sea lying between South East Europe and Asia. This sea is connected with the Mediterranean Sea through Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles. It is an amazing feature on the map of Black Sea that it is surrounded by six different countries.
Credits: Norman Einsttein/wikipedia.org
Sharing its shores with boundaries of Turkey, Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Russia and Georgia, this sea is the connecting link between all these six different countries.
2.  Mystery Surrounding the Origin of the name – Black Sea
One of the best and little known Black Sea facts is the origin of its name. There are various theories as to how this sea got to be called by this particular name. Of the many prevalent theories, there is one that says that the Black sea was called ‘the Sea’  for a long time before being called as the ‘inhospitable Sea’ before the Greeks took over its shore lines. Once Greeks made navigation through this sea very easy, the name changed from the inhospitable to the hospitable sea.
However, this sea has been given many names over the centuries by different people but this particular name happens to be the most famous one, believed to be given by the Turkish in medieval times.
3.  Anoxic water
One of the most intriguing facts about the Black Sea is its anoxic water. Black Sea happens to be the largest water body with a meromictic basin. This means the movement of water between the lower and upper layers of water in this sea is the least found anywhere in the world.
This makes a considerable temperature difference between these layers along with making the lower layers absolute free of oxygen and hence, inactive.
4.  Believed to be the Landing Point of the Noah’s Ark : Maritime History
Another very interesting fact or perhaps rumor about the Black Sea is that the Mt. Ararat standing in the eastern Turkey along the coastline of the Black Sea is considered to be the landing point for Noah’s Ark.
Since there is no concrete way of verifying this rumor, black Sea happens to be one the most famous ways for people to check out the rumored mountain for themselves.
5.  Has Exotic Smaller islands
 The black sea is a house to many smaller islands all along its inland. These islands are about ten in number and are amazing store of fauna and flora that make this sea even more unique that it already is. These islands cover an expanse of three different countries, making each one a unique experience of its own.
Credits: Tarih/wikipedia.org
6.  Creepy Rumors: The dead lies beneath the water
 What seems like an intriguing and almost scary fact is that the dead are believed to persist in waters of the Black Sea. Remains of ships and humans and other decomposable materials like ropes, wood etc can still be found at the bed of this sea, hundreds of years after their entry into the waters of the Black Sea. As thrilling as this fact sounds, the scientific explanation for it is that due to anoxic nature of the lower water layers of this sea, the process of decomposition is negligibly slow, hence, the persistence of remains of the dead inside the sea’s water.
7.  The Water Level Always Remains the Same 
Another one of the interesting Black Sea facts is that the water level in this sea always remains the same. Due to absence of any high or low tides, there is no fluctuation in the water level, making it a calm, quiet and serene sea on the surface.
8.   Thriving tourists spot choice and favorite destination for cruises
In spite of all the mystery surrounding the Black Sea, the fact remains that it happens to be a very famous choice for tourists’ vacations all the year round. With its amazing destinations that include six countries, tour of the Mediterranean sea, intermediate sea, tourists spots etc, it remains one of the most famous picks for people wishing to enjoy some quality time on a relaxed laid back traveling experience.
Credits: Martyr/wikipedia.org
Because of its popularity as a tourist choice and amazing scope of cruising, there are a number of cruises that offer a chance to explore the secrets of this sea. You can choose your destination from any of the six countries this sea borders along with the smaller islands that fall on the way, along with the Mediterranean Sea as a bonus.
These are just a few of all the amazing Black sea facts. But to know more about them, it is best to visit this sea and let it do the talking.
Dead Sea How far does one have to descend to reach the Dead Sea? About 400 meters below sea level. How deep is this salty lake? Almost the same (in the northern section). Fascinating? Absolutely! Every detail about the Dead Sea is fascinating.
Here are a few more facts: The Dead Sea is the lowest point on earth in any land mass (417 meters below sea level, to be exact). The quantity of water that evaporates from it is greater than that which flows into it, such that this body of water has the highest concentration of salt in the world (340 grams per liter of water).  
It is called the Dead Sea because its salinity prevents the existence of any life forms in the lake. That same salt, on the other hand, provides tremendous relief to the many ailing visitors who come here on a regular basis to benefit from its healing properties. All these and more make the Dead Sea so fascinating, so different and so interesting
2. The Dead Sea is 377 m (1,237 ft) deep, making it the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. A hypersaline lake is a landlocked body of water that contains significant concentrations of sodium chloride or other mineral salts, with saline levels surpassing that of ocean water.
With 33.7% salinity, the Dead Sea is one of the world’s saltiest bodies of water. Although Lake Assal (Djibouti), Garabogazköl and some hypersaline lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond) have reported higher salinities.
The Dead Sea’s unusually high salt concentration means that people can easily float in the Dead Sea due to natural buoyancy. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States.
The Dead Sea is roughly 8.6 times saltier than the ocean. This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which animals cannot flourish (hence its name). The high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms such as fish and aquatic plants from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present
The Dead Sea is 67 kilometres (42 mi) long and 18 kilometres (11 mi) wide at its widest point. It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley and its main tributary is the Jordan River.
9. An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance. Asphalt coated figurines and bitumen coated Neolithic skulls from archaeological sites have been found. Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region.
The surface and shores of the Dead Sea are 423 metres (1,388 ft) below sea level, making it Earth’s lowest elevation on land.
Salt water is less dense, you always float more easily in it

7. The Red Sea has been created through plate tectonics
The Red Sea (also the Erythraean Sea) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal). The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion. The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.
The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km2 (169,100 mi2).[1][2] It is about 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point, 355 km (220.6 mi) wide. It has a maximum depth of 2211 m (7254 ft) in the central median trench, and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 ft). However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life and corals. The sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world's northernmost tropical sea.
Red Sea is a direct translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa (Ερυθρὰ Θάλασσα) and Latin Mare Rubrum (alternatively Sinus Arabicus, literally "Arabian Gulf"), Arabic Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar (البحر الأحمر) or Baḥr Al-Qulzum (بحر القلزم), Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī (ቀይሕ ባሕሪ). The name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the water's surface.[4] A theory favored by some modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south, just as the Black Sea's name may refer to north. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions.[5] Herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably.[6]
Historically, it was also known to western geographers as Mare Mecca (Sea of Mecca), and Sinus Arabicus (Gulf of Arabia).[7] Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf[8] or Gulf of Arabia.[9][10]
The association of the Red Sea with the biblical account of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea is ancient, and was made explicit in the Septuagint translation of the Book of Exodus from Hebrew to Koine Greek in approximately the third century B.C. In that version, the Hebrew Yam Suph (ים סוף) is translated as Erythra Thalassa (Red Sea). (See also the more recent suggestion that the Yam Suph of the Exodus refers to a Sea of Reeds). The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the north-western part of the Indian Ocean, and also to a region on Mars.
History
Ancient era
Ancient Egyptian expedition to the Land of Punt on the Red Sea coast during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut
The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, as they attempted to establish commercial routes to Punt. One such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC (by Hatshepsut). Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea.[11] Historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible.[12] The biblical Book of Exodus tells the tale of the Israelites' crossing of a body of water, which the Hebrew text calls Yam Suph (Hebrew: יַם סוּף). Yam Suph was traditionally identified as the Red Sea. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (882‒942 CE), in his Judeo-Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, identifies the crossing place of the Red Sea as Baḥar al-Qulzum, meaning the Gulf of Suez.[13] (The story is part of the larger biblical lore about an Exodus of Israelites under Moses. Yam Suph can also been translated as Sea of Reeds.[citation needed]
In the 6th century BC, Darius the Great of Persia sent reconnaissance missions to the Red Sea, improving and extending navigation by locating many hazardous rocks and currents. A canal was built between the Nile and the northern end of the Red Sea at Suez. In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great sent Greek naval expeditions down the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Greek navigators continued to explore and compile data on the Red Sea. Agatharchides collected information about the sea in the 2nd century BC. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ("Periplus of the Red Sea"), a Greek periplus written by an unknown author around the 1st century AD, contains a detailed description of the Red Sea's ports and sea routes.[14] The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to India.
Settlements and commercial centers in the vicinity of the Red Sea involved in the spice trade, as described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
The Red Sea was favored for Roman trade with India starting with the reign of Augustus, when the Roman Empire gained control over the Mediterranean, Egypt, and the northern Red Sea. The route had been used by previous states but grew in the volume of traffic under the Romans. From Indian ports goods from China were introduced to the Roman world. Contact between Rome and China depended on the Red Sea, but the route was broken by the Aksumite Empire around the 3rd century AD.[15]
Middle Ages and modern era
During the Middle Ages, the Red Sea was an important part of the spice trade route. In 1513, trying to secure that channel to Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque laid siege to Aden[16] but was forced to retreat. They cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al-Mandab, as the first European fleet to have sailed these waters.
In 1798, France ordered General Napoleon to invade Egypt and take control of the Red Sea. Although he failed in his mission, the engineer Jean-Baptiste Lepère, who took part in it, revitalised the plan for a canal which had been envisaged during the reign of the Pharaohs. Several canals were built in ancient times from the Nile to the Red Sea along or near the line of the present Sweet Water Canal, but none lasted for long. The Suez Canal was opened in November At the time, the British, French, and Italians shared the trading posts. The posts were gradually dismantled following the First World War. After the Second World War, the Americans and Soviets exerted their influence whilst the volume of oil tanker traffic intensified. However, the Six Day War culminated in the closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to Today, in spite of patrols by the major maritime fleets in the waters of the Red Sea, the Suez Canal has never recovered its supremacy over the Cape route, which is believed to be less vulnerable.
Oceanography
Annotated view of the Nile and Red Sea, with a dust storm[17]
The Red Sea is between arid land, desert and semi-desert. Reef systems are better developed along the Red Sea mainly because of its greater depths and an efficient water circulation pattern. The Red Sea water mass-exchanges its water with the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden. These physical factors reduce the effect of high salinity caused by evaporation in the north and relatively hot water in the south.
The climate of the Red Sea is the result of two monsoon seasons; a northeasterly monsoon and a southwesterly monsoon. Monsoon winds occur because of differential heating between the land and the sea. Very high surface temperatures and high salinities make this one of the warmest and saltiest bodies of seawater in the world. The average surface water temperature of the Red Sea during the summer is about 26 °C (79 °F) in the north and 30 °C (86 °F) in the south, with only about 2 °C (3.6 °F) variation during the winter months. The overall average water temperature is 22 °C (72 °F). Temperature and visibility remain good to around 200 m (656 ft). The sea is known for its strong winds and unpredictable local currents.
The rainfall over the Red Sea and its coasts is extremely low, averaging 0.06 m (2.36 in) per year. The rain is mostly short showers, often with thunderstorms and occasionally with dust storms. The scarcity of rainfall and no major source of fresh water to the Red Sea result in excess evaporation as high as 205 cm (81 in) per year and high salinity with minimal seasonal variation. A recent underwater expedition to the Red Sea offshore from Sudan and Eritrea[18] found surface water temperatures 28 °C in winter and up to 34 °C in the summer, but despite that extreme heat the coral was healthy with much fish life with very little sign of coral bleaching, with only 9% infected by Thalassomonas loyana, the 'white plague' agent. Favia favus coral there harbours a virus, BA3, which kills T.loyana.[19] Plans are afoot to use samples of these corals' apparently heat-adapted commensal algae to salvage bleached coral elsewhere.
Salinity
The Red Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water in the world, owing to high evaporation. Salinity ranges from between ~36 ‰ in the southern part because of the effect of the Gulf of Aden water and reaches 41 ‰ in the northern part, owing mainly to the Gulf of Suez water and the high evaporation. The average salinity is 40 ‰. (Average salinity for the world's seawater is ~35 ‰ on the Practical Salinity Scale, or PPS; that translates to 3.5% actual dissolved salts.)
High rate of evaporation and very little precipitation.
The salinity of the Red Sea is greater than the world average, approximately 4 percent. This is due to several factors:
Lack of significant rivers or streams draining into the sea.
Limited connection with the Indian Ocean, which has lower water salinity.
The name of the sea does not indicate a real red colour, as the seawater is actually blue when viewed afar, and transparent when held in hand. It may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured cyanobacteria Trichodesmium erythraeum near the water surface. Some suggest that it refers to the mineral-rich red mountains nearby, which are indeed called "Mounts of the Edomites" or "the Rubi mountains" in Hebrew language. There is also speculation that the name Red Sea came from a mistranslation of what should have been the Reed Sea.
Surface water temperatures remain relatively constant at 21-25°C and temperature and visibility remain good to around 200 m, but the sea is known for its strong winds and tricky local currents. The sea was created by the division of Africa from the Arabian peninsula, a movement which began around 30 million years ago. The sea is still widening and there are small volcanic features in the deeper parts, it is considered that the sea will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of Tuzo Wilson).
The sea is known for its spectacular dive sites such as Ras Mohammed, Elphinstone, The Brothers and Rocky Island in Egypt, and less known sites in Sudan such as Sanganeb, Abington, Angarosh and Shaab Rum.
The Red Sea was "discovered" as a diving destination by Hans Hass in the 1950s, and by Jacques-Yves Cousteau later.
The Red Sea was formed by the Arabian peninsula being split from the Horn of Africa by movement of the Red Sea Rift. This split started in the Eocene and accelerated during the Oligocene. The sea is still widening, and it is considered that it will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of John Tuzo Wilson).

8. Plate tectonics has also created many mountain ranges in this area:

9. North Anatolian Fault is highly active; 750 miles long; among most active in the world
Anatolian Peninsula is where the continents of Europe and Asia meet
Africa and Arabia use to be 1
Rift valley separated them and created the red sea
North Anatolian Fault is one of the most active faults in the world
arthquake researchers have now identified a 30 kilometers long and ten kilometers deep area along the North Anatolian fault zone just south of Istanbul that could be the starting point for a strong earthquake. The group of seismologists including Professor Marco Bohnhoff of the GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences reported in the current online issue of the scientific journal Nature Communications that this potential earthquake source is only 15 to 20 kilometers from the historic city center of Istanbul.
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The Istanbul-Marmara region of northwestern Turkey with a population of more than 15 million faces a high probability of being exposed to an earthquake of magnitude 7 or more. To better understand the processes taking place before a strong earthquake at a critically pressurized fault zone, a seismic monitoring network was built on the Princes Islands in the Sea of Marmara off Istanbul under the auspices of the Potsdam Helmholtz Centre GFZ together with the Kandilli Earthquake Observatory in Istanbul. The Princes Islands offer the only opportunity to monitor the seismic zone running below the seafloor from a distance of few kilometers.
The now available data allow the scientists around GFZ researcher Marco Bohnhoff to come to the conclusion that the area is locked in depth in front of the historic city of Istanbul: "The block we identified reaches ten kilometers deep along the fault zone and has displayed no seismic activity since measurements began over four years ago. This could be an indication that the expected Marmara earthquake could originate there," says Bohnhoff.
This is also supported by the fact that the fracture zone of the last strong earthquake in the region, in 1999, ended precisely in this area -- probably at the same structure, which has been impeding the progressive shift of the Anatolian plate in the south against the Eurasian plate in the north since 1766 and building up pressure. The results are also being compared with findings from other fault zones, such as the San Andreas Fault in California, to better understand the physical processes before an earthquake.
Currently, the GFZ is intensifying its activity to monitor the earthquake zone in front of Istanbul. Together with the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency of Turkey AFAD, several 300 meter deep holes are currently being drilled around the eastern Marmara Sea, into which highly sensitive borehole seismometers will be placed. With this Geophysical borehole Observatory at the North Anatolian Fault GONAF, measurement accuracy and detection threshold for microearthquakes are improved many times over. In addition, the new data also provide insights on the expected ground motion in the event of an earthquake in the region. Bohnhoff: "Earthquake prediction is scientifically impossible. But studies such as this provide a way to better characterize earthquakes in advance in terms of location, magnitude and rupture progression, and therefore allow a better assessment of damage risk."
As violent protests rock Istanbul, another cataclysm is building beneath the city.
Just 30 miles (50 kilometers) from the center of Istanbul, the last domino is waiting to fall on the North Anatolian Fault. Since 1939, massive temblors have marched westward on the fault, moving closer to the city. When this section of the fault finally topples, an earthquake of more than magnitude 7.0 will strike one of Europe's biggest cities. Now, researchers think they've pinpointed the spot where the earthquake will start, according to a study published today (June 18) in the journal Nature Communications.
The North Anatolian fault emerges as a close analogue of the San Andreas fault in California, with the two
continental transforms sharing similar slip rates, total length, and straightness relative to their poles of
rotation (Fig. 1a). But while the San Andreas fault produced just two M>=6.7 earthquakes in this century (in
1906 and 1989), the North Anatolian fault has suffered ten such shocks, thus providing a superior natural
laboratory to study earthquake interaction
The North Anatolian Fault (NAF) (Turkish: Kuzey Anadolu Fay Hattı) is an active right-lateral strike-slip fault in northern Anatolia which runs along the transform boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the Anatolian Plate. The fault extends westward from a junction with the East Anatolian Fault at the Karliova Triple Junction in eastern Turkey, across northern Turkey and into the Aegean Sea for a length of 1500 kilometers.[1] It runs about 20 km south of Istanbul. The North Anatolian Fault is similar in many ways to the San Andreas Fault in California. Both are continental transforms with similar lengths and slip rates. The Sea of Marmara near Istanbul is an extensional basin similar to the Salton Trough in California, where a releasing bend in the strike-slip system creates a pull-apart basin.
Significant earthquakes[edit]
See also: List of earthquakes in Turkey
Since the disastrous 1939 Erzincan earthquake, there have been seven earthquakes measuring over 7.0 in magnitude,[2] each happening at a point progressively further west.[3] Seismologists studying this pattern believe that each earthquake may trigger the next.[4] By analyzing the stresses along the fault caused by each large earthquake, they were able to predict the shock that hit the town of İzmit with devastating effect in August It is thought that the chain is not complete, and that an earthquake will soon strike further west along the fault – perhaps near the heavily populated city of Istanbul.

10. The Zagros Mountains dissect the region
The Zagros Mountain range stretches south and west from the borders of Turkey and Russia to the Persian Gulf, and is Iran's largest mountain range (but not the highest which are The Alborz), rising in the western half of the country and along the northern border
Zagros (zăg´rŏs), mountain system of W Iran, extending c.1,100 mi (1,770 km) from the Turkish-Armenian frontier SE to the Strait of Hormuz, forming the western and southern border of the central Iranian plateau; rises to Mt. Sabalan, 15,592 ft (4,752 m) high. The Zagros vary from the rugged, forested, and snowcapped mountains of the northwest, with numerous volcanic cones and large basins (e.g., Lake Urmia), to the parallel ridge and valley system of the central portion, with lowland salt marshes, and the low, irregular southwest region, characterized by bare rock and sand dunes. The northern half of the Zagros is heavily populated, and the fertile valleys support agriculture. In the uplands of the central range, tribal pastoralism predominates. In the SE Zagros, dates and cereals are grown at oases. Kurds, Lurs, Bakhtiaris, Kashkais, and other nomads inhabit the mountains; some of the groups are now sedentary. Iran's great oil fields lie along the western foothills of the central Zagros, where salt domes have trapped huge amounts of oil. In antiquity the Zagros formed the boundary between Assyria and Media.

11. The Taurus Mountains on the southern edge of Turkey are notable for Mount Ararat
Mount Ararat is located in Eastern Turkey on the borders of Iran, Armenia (formerly U.S.S.R.), and Nakchivan. This volcanic mountain rises 5,165 meters or 16,945 feet high, far above the plains that are at 2,000-3,000 feet high, and is the highest location in the ancient territory of Urartu, a region which covered tens of thousands of square miles with hundreds of mountains. Ararat is the newer Armenian name of Urartu from the Hebrew Torah written by Moses (c BC), which only included the consonants "rrt". However, the translators of the Bible replaced the "rrt" with the later name, "Ararat" or "Armenia." The Assyrian kings wrote about battles against the Urartian tribes from the thirteenth century BC (c BC) until the sixth century BC when Urartu was destroyed by the Medes. The name Urartu then vanished from history (until archaeologists re-discovered it in the 1800s) and was replaced by Ararat and Armenia in the vicinity as well as in English Bible translations, maps, etc. As history went on in the first and second millenia AD, the mountain became known as Ararat and the region as Armenia.
Mount Ararat may be the largest single-mass or volume mountain in the world as it is huge (one really has to see it in person to appreciate its immensity) and rises to 17,000 feet from the plains surrounding it at 2,000-3,000 feet while most other large mountains are in a mountain range with less differential and base circumference. Ararat has only a few native trees growing on it in Ahora village, shrubs around Korhan, and several small forests on Little Ararat. Views differ as to whether Ararat formed much of its size after the flood (post-flood) or partially during the flood with post-flood uplift and lava flows. Some geologists like Clifford Burdick have found pillow lava (lava spewed into water, ice, or snow) up to the 14,000-foot level where the 17-square mile ice cap typically begins. However, since pillow lava may be formed with ice or snow water, it is not a convincing argument for a flood-time mountain creation. Geologists believe that cylindrical and very steep mountains like Little Ararat show that it is most probably a post-flood mountain. There are also claims of fossils and sedimentary layers on Greater Ararat but these claims have not been backed up with concrete evidence as of this date although there are evidence of fossils in the Ararat valley limestones from both the Geologist Abich and the explorers.
From 14,000 feet to 17,000 feet, much of the lava is covered by an ice cap which is about 17 square miles in size and is up to 350 feet deep. As computed by ArcImaging, the coordinates that cover the ice cap area on Mount Ararat are N 39 degrees 41' to N 39 degrees 44', E 44 degrees 15' 30" to E 44 degrees 19' 30". The area of this rectangle is about 31.6 square kilometers.
The Mount Ararat region along with the Araxes river valley constitutes a possible beginning location for the archaeology of the Early Transcaucasian culture with its distinctive red-black burnished ware. There are a number of Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age archaeological sites around Mount Ararat in Turkey, Armenia, and Nakchivan. Archaeologists would like to research this area more but the border region is difficult to get permission to research as well as the border breaks up the research area into separate nations... However, ArcImaging was able to secure permission in 2001 for the first archaeological survey of Mount Ararat since the 1980s. The Mount Ararat Archaeological Survey co-authored by Ataturk University Archaeology Professors in Erzurum, Turkey and Rex Geissler of ArcImaging was published in the Summer 2008 Edition of Bible and Spade by Associates for Biblical Research (ABR).
Earliest Historical Reference to Noah's Ark being on Mount Ararat
The earliest obvious historical reference to the geography surrounding Noah's Ark landing on Mount Ararat is by the early church historian Philostorgius's account around A.D The 2007 translation of Philostorgius was edited by Philip R. Amidon, originally from Joseph Bidez, except for the extracts from the Syriac chronicles. Amidon emphasizes how Philostorgius made great use of the immense library resources of Constantinople in his writings, which should give us more confidence in his geography.
How is it that Philostorgius even knows that the Ark landed on the Armenian Mount Ararat in ca. 425 AD if supposedly (as Bailey et al. contend) no one came up with that idea until medieval times and no one ever made such an identification until then?  Amidon states the following in the introduction about Philostorgius:
"The learned and fervently Eunomian layman Philostorgius, born in Cappadocia around 368, heartily detested such historiography as may be imagined [this reference is to the Council of Nicaea's Nicene Creed supporters like Rufinus who translated and extended/massaged Eusebius of Caesarea writings into Latin to show support for Nicene Christianity]. The remnants of his writing show a lively intellectual curiosity encouraged by his sectarian creed, whose God is not the hidden deity of Gnosticism but one whose very substance can be known by human reason directed aright. He obviously drank deeply from the libraries, museums, and archives of Constantinople, his Dissimilarian spectacles bringing into focus a picture of the century preceding that was very unlike the one painted by Rufinus, with whom his own narrative, when he came to write it, was indeed in frequent argument... It appeared sometime between 425 and 433, in twelve books bound in two volumes, its proper period the years from 320 to Philostorgius in fact groups into one 'homoousian' party all those Christians who opposed Eunomianism (in the same way as those of Nicene sympathies like to call 'Arian' anyone who rejected the term 'consubstantial' as used in the Creed of Nicaea)... Such is the central dram of our author's history: the enduring contest between the true monotheistic faith of God's people and the pagan forces arrayed against it. Gnosticism is always the silent partner in the debates between Nicene and Eunomian Christians, the real foe against whom Aetius fought the battle that nearly led to his death. And there is some evidence that this view comes from Eunomius himself. This being the tenor of Philostorgius's history, it is not surprising that the government that championed the Nicene faith would seek to suppress it, seeing that it had previously ordered the burning of the works of Eunomius, one of the great heroes of his tale... He followed Herodotus's lead in historiography, embroidering his narrative with learned excursions into geography and natural history and in general cultivating style that would recommend him to his readers. The style was no empty show. His immersion in the scholarly resources offered by Constantinople has preserved for us, even in the abridgement of its original work, traditions that are otherwise unknown or that add perspective to matters related elsewhere."
Philostorgius stated the following about Noah's Ark and Mount Ararat in Book 3 as epitomized by Photius who according to Amidon "is usually a careful, if hostile, epitomizer, and his editorial glosses can usually be detected":
"The Persian Gulf, which is formed by the ocean as it enters there, is huge and is encircled by many nations. The Tigris is one fo the enormous rivers that empty their streams into it at its mouth. The Tigris seems to have its source in the east, south of the Caspian Sea in Corduena, and it flows past Syria, but when it arrives in the region of Susa, the Euphrates joins its current to it, and so it boils onward, swollen now to a great size. Hence they say it is called "Tigris" after the animal. But before it descends to the sea, it divides into two great rivers, and then it empties into the Persian Gulf from these two mouths at its end, which are divided from each other. It thus cuts off a considerable area of ground in between, making of it an island that is both of the river and of the sea; it is inhabited by a people called the Mesenes. As for the Euphrates River, it appears to take its rise in Armenia, where Mount Ararat is. The mountain is still called by that name by the Armenians. It is where, according to scripture, the ark came to rest, and they say that considerable remnants of its wood and nails are still preserved there. From there the Euphrates starts as a small stream at first, growing ever larger as it advances and sharing its name with the many rivers that empty into it. It makes its way through Greater and Lesser Armenian and then proceeds on, dividing first the Syria that is properly called Euphratensis and then also the rest of Syria. Having passed through this region, and the remaining part [of Syria], and having broken up the lands through which it passes into a series of convolutions of every sort with its crooked course, it draws near to Arabia. There its way takes it in a circle opposite the Red Sea as it loops around a wide region, after which it turns toward the Caecias wind, midway between north and east. It then heads toward the Tigris River, although it cannot join its whole self to it, but wasting part of itself on the way, it empties the remained of itself into the Tigris quite near Susa, this remainder being a mighty stream quite capable of carrying ships. There it also abandons its name and flows with the Tigris down to the Persian Gulf. The land between these two rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, is called Mesopotamia."
The collision of the European and African plates resulted in this mountain formation in Anatolia. Limestone has eroded to form karstic landscapes of waterfalls, underground rivers, and the largest caves of Asia, especially in the Yedigoller valley
about 11,000 ft up
The range has important chromium deposits and other minerals such as silver, copper, iron, lignite, and zinc. The Anti-Taurus are well forested but Aladaglar area doesn't have much vegetation because of the lack of rivers except small ones formed by melting snow depending on the climate.
Ancient Taurus Mountains - A 3, ,000 foot mountain range in southern Turkey. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers descend from the Taurus mountains into the Mesopotamian region.
Ararat is a dormant volcano; the last eruption was on June 2, At present the upper third of the mountain is covered with snow all the time; the last hundred meters of snow at the top have turned to ice. For climbers on the mountain, fresh running water is available after the sun has been up a while to melt the snow, but it is cut off in the late afternoon when cold air has overcome the heat of the sun. Below the snow the slopes are covered with great blocks of black basalt rock, some as large as village houses.
Over the years various groups have explored Ararat in the hopes of finding remains of Noah's Ark. Both Josephus in about 70 A.D. and Marco Polo about 1300 A.D. mention its existence on the mountain, but their reports are based on others' accounts. Josephus remarks that its remains are on display for all to see without need of an organized exploration. In more recent years many groups have hunted for it there. The possibility that ancient fables are historical fact is intriguing, and each new discovery of truth in previously discredited records gives additional strength to continuing the search for archaeological confirmation.
However, the problems of establishing exactly what the biblical record in this case means are serious ones that need to be settled even before one accepts this particular high mountain as the right place to look for the ark. In itself even that ignores the possibility that Noah and his family used up the ark in bits and pieces to build their new homes, a fate that has destroyed many other famous structures in the Near East since.
ARARAT, MOUNT
mountain in eastern turkey that figures prominently in the bible.
Mount Ararat (in Turkish Ağri Daği) is in the province of Agri, eastern Turkey, near the border of Iran. First climbed in modern times in 1829, the mountain consists of two peaks—Great Ararat at 16,946 feet (5,165 m), and Little Ararat at 12,877 feet (3,927 m). According to the Book of Genesis in the Bible, Mount Ararat was the landing spot of Noah's Ark.

12. The Caucasus are found between two bodies of water and considered both Europe and Asia
The relative remoteness of the Caucasus from the Greek and Romans lands led to erroneous ideas concerning its location, not to mention exotic claims for its people. Some thought that the mountains extended far enough to the east that they joined with the Himalayas in India. The Caucasus was the scene of the legendary Prometheus' captivity, the goal of Jason's Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece, and the homeland of the famous and fantastic fighting women known as Amazons. When Pompey invaded the region, he was said to have wanted to see the mountain where Prometheus had been chained.
The main Caucasus range is often considered part of the boundary that separates the state of mind that is Europe from that of Asia, despite aspirations of people to the south to be a part of Europe. The highest peak is Mount Elbrus at 18,510 feet (5,642 meters), making it the highest in Europe; other prominent summits include Kazbek (Qazbegi) in Georgia at 16,558 feet (5,047 meters). The lands to the south are protected by the barrier they form against the cold northern winds, to the point that lands along the Black Sea coast, although at latitudes above 40º N, possess a subtropical climate.
To the north of the Caucasus range is the Eurasian steppe, which stretches far to the east and west; it has been the route of countless invasions. To the south are a variety of lesser mountain ranges, plateaus, and plains—an area that has also been a crossroads of military and economic inter-course—Persians from the east, various Greco-Roman states from the west, and Semitic cultures from the south have interacted with the peoples of the South Caucasus.
There are a variety of climates in this region due to the steep gradient in elevation from sea level to mountain peak. Glaciers are nestled at the tops of the mountains only a couple hundred miles from citrus and tea plantations. Fast-moving rivers course along this gradient. By and large, the mountain rivers, cutting steep gorges, for example, the Pankisi in eastern Georgia and the Kodori in Abkhazia, are not navigable, but there are rivers to the south and north—such as the Mtkvari (Kura), which starts in Turkey and flows through Georgia and Azerbaijan to the Caspian Sea, and the Terek to the north, which flows also to the Caspian—that have been important water highways throughout human history. The mountains hold mineral resources such as coal and manganese. The Caucasus is near the oil resources of the Caspian Sea and pipelines run to, or are planned for, the north and south of the mountains.
There is great potential for promoting a prosperous tourist industry. Alpine skiing, pristine mountain lakes, white-water rafting, and the breathtaking scenery of snow-capped mountains juxtaposed with fertile plains are all available to the visitor, and the hospitality of the many peoples of the region, when they are not fighting among themselves, is the stuff of story and legend.
The Caucasus Mountains formed largely as the result of a tectonic plate collision between the Arabian plate moving northward with respect to the Eurasian plate. The entire region is regularly subjected to strong earthquakes from this activity.[1] The Lesser Caucasus Mountains on the other hand, is largely of volcanic origin.[2] The Javakheti Volcanic Plateau in Georgia and the surrounding volcanic ranges which extend well into central Armenia are some of the youngest features of the region.
Europe's highest mountain is usually listed as Mount Elbrus 5,642 m (18,510 ft), in the Caucasus Mountains, though in a few sources, Mont Blanc 4,810 m (15,780 ft), in the Alps is listed. The Caucasus Mountains are generally considered as in both Europe and Asia. In fact, the main Greater Caucasus range is the most common definition for the continental divide. For a detailed history of the Asia-Europe definition, see Boundaries between continents. While clearly not a scientific definition, most mountain climbers consider Mt. Elbrus to be the highest mountain in Europe.[

13. Hindu Kush covers much of Afghanistan
It was through the high passes of the Hindu Kush in about 1500 bc that invaders from Central Asia brought their Indo-European language—a forerunner of the Indo-Iranian languages spoken throughout the region today. Historically, the passes have been of great military significance, providing access to the northern plains of India for such conquerors as Alexander the Great, the king of Macedonia; the Mongols Genghis Khan and Timur (Tamerlane); and their descendant Babur, the first Mughal emperor. During the period of British rule in India, the Indian government was keenly concerned with the security both of these passes and of an associated physical feature to the south, the Khyber Pass. The Hindu Kush range has rarely constituted the frontier between major powers but has usually formed part of an intermediate buffer zone. The name Hindu Kush derives from the Arabic for “Mountains of India.” Its earliest known usage occurs on a map published about ad 1000.
Physical features
The eastern limit of the Hindu Kush is difficult to determine because of a locally complex topography, although the Karambar Pass (14,250 feet [4,343 metres]) between the valleys of the Konar (called the Kunar or Chitral in Pakistan) and Gilgit rivers may be tentatively accepted as the boundary. The western limit also is uncertain, as the mountains lose height and fan out into minor ranges in Afghanistan. Geologists, however, consider the Hindu Kush range to extend much farther west to the Iranian border.
The mountain environment. In geological tectonic terms, the Hindu Kush is part of the young Eurasian mountain range complex, which has risen since the late Tertiary period. In the main it consists of metamorphic rocks (schist, gneiss, marble, etc.), but also of intrusives (granite, diorite, etc.) of varying age and size. The youth of the mountains can be seen in the frequent and sometimes severe earthquakes, particularly in Badaḵšān. The Hindu Kush also contains several mineral reserves, some of historical and some of contemporary importance. The lapis lazuli (lasurite) deposits in the area of Yamgān on the upper Kokča are renowned and have been mined since prehistoric times. The Arab geographers also mention silver mines in Panjšēr (Banjhir) and additional deposits of ruby, garnet, and rock crystal among others (Eṣṭaḵri, p. 280; Ebn Ḥawqal, p. 449, tr. Kramers and Wiet, pp ; Moqaddasi, pp. 303, 326; Yule; Le Strange, Lands, p. 350); today they have no economic value, however.

14. The Atlas Mountains separate the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of
North Africa from the Sahara
(Africa’s longest range)
Atlas Mountains, series of mountain ranges in northwestern Africa, running generally southwest to northeast to form the geologic backbone of the countries of the Maghrib (the western region of the Arab world)—Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. They extend for more than 1,200 miles (2,000 kilometres), from the Moroccan port of Agadir in the southwest, to the Tunisian capital of Tunis in the northeast. Their thick rim rises to form a high sill separating the Mediterranean basin to the north from the Sahara to the south, thus constituting a barrier that hinders, without completely preventing, communication between the two regions. Across the mountains filter both air masses and human migrations. It is, however, only in the east–west direction that the Atlas Mountains facilitate movement. These are the conditions that create at the same time both the individuality and the homogeneity of the Atlas countries. Although the Saharan region is more likely to be described as the archetypal North African habitat, it is the well-watered mountains north of this vast desert that provide the foundation for the livelihood of most of the peoples of North Africa and a striking green or white background for many North African towns.
Physiography
The Atlas mountain system takes the shape of an extended oblong, enclosing within its ranges a vast complex of plains and plateaus.
The northern section is formed by the Tell Atlas, which receives enough rainfall to bear fine forests. From west to east several massifs (mountainous masses) occur. The first of these is Er-Rif, which forms a half-moon-shaped arc in Morocco between Ceuta and Melilla; its crest line exceeds 5,000 feet (1,500 metres) above sea level at several points, reaching 8,058 feet at Mount Tidirhine. East of the gap formed by the Moulouya River the Algerian ranges begin, among which the rugged bastion of the Ouarsenis Massif (which reaches a height of 6,512 feet), the Great Kabylie, which reaches 7,572 feet at the peak of Lalla Khedidja, and the mountains of Kroumirie in Tunisia are all prominent.
The southern section, which is subject to desert influences, is appropriately called the Saharan Atlas. It includes in the centre a palisade formed by shorter ranges, such as the Ksour and Ouled-Naïl mountains, grouped into massifs between two mighty ranges—the Moroccan High Atlas to the west and the Aurès Mountains to the east. The High Atlas culminates in Mount Toubkal at 13,665 feet (4,165 metres), the highest point in the Atlas Mountains, which is surrounded by high snowcapped peaks; the Aurès Mountains are formed of long parallel folds, which reach a height of 7,638 feet at Mount Chelia.
The Tell Atlas and the Saharan Atlas merge in the west into the long folds of the Middle Atlas and in the east join together in the Tébessa and Medjerda mountains.
Geology
If the relief of the Atlas region is relatively simple, its geology is complex. In essence, the two Atlases comprise two different structural regions.
The Tell Atlas originally arose out of a basin filled with sediment, which was dominated to the north by a marginal rim, of which the massifs of Tizi Ouzou, Collo, and Edough are the remnants. Its elevation took place during a lengthy mountain-building process that was marked by upheavals in the Paleogene and Neogene periods (i.e., about 65 to 2.6 million years ago); over the cluster of folds that were uplifted from the rift valley were spread sheets of flysch (deposits of sandstones and clays), which were carried down from the north over the top of the marginal rim. Thus the Tell Atlas represents an example of a young folded mountain range still in the process of formation, as is shown by the earth tremors to which it is subject.
To the south the Saharan Atlas belongs to another structural grouping, that of the vast plateaus of the African continent, which form part of the ancient base rock largely covered by sediments deposited by shallow seas and by alluvial deposits. The Saharan Atlas is the result either of the mighty folding of the substructure that raised up fragments of the base rock—such as the horst (uplifted block of the Earth’s crust), which constitutes the Moroccan High Atlas—or else of the crumpling into folds of the Earth’s crust during the Jurassic Period (about 200 to 145 million years ago) and the Cretaceous Period (about 145 to 65 million years ago).
Drainage
The seasonal character of the rains, which fall in torrents, determines the characteristics of drainage in the Atlas: the runoff feeds streams that are of great erosive capacity and that have cut their way down through the thickness of accumulated layers of sediment to form deep narrow gorges difficult to cross. The pre-Roman fortress of Cirta (now called Constantine) in Algeria stands on a rock sculptured out by one such stream, the winding Rhumel River.
The great Maghribian wadis (French: oueds; channels of watercourses that are dry except during periods of rain) issue from the Atlas ranges. Among the more perennial rivers are the Moulouya, which rises from the Middle Atlas, and the Chelif, which rises from the Amour Mountains. Destructive of the soils of their headstreams, they deposit their loads of silt at the foot of the mountain ranges or else leave a long line of conical deposits locally known as dirs (“hills”).
The Atlas Mountains extend approximately 1,300 miles (2,090 km) through the Maghrib countries of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia—from the Atlantic Ocean, south of Agadir, to the Mediterranean Sea near Tunis. This system comprises a series of roughly parallel ranges. From west to east, these include the Anti-Atlas, High Atlas, and Middle Atlas in Morocco; the Saharan Atlas, maritime Tell Atlas (itself formed of a series of distinct massifs such as the Ouarsenis, Grande Kabylie, and Petite Kabylie), and Aurès in Algeria; and the Kroumirie, Medjerda, and Tébessa Mountains in Tunisia, which are extensions of the Algerian ranges. Some authorities also include the Rif range (al-Rif), along Morocco's Mediterranean coast in the Atlas system.
The Atlas ranges dominate the landscapes of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, differentiating them from the other North African countries, where desert lowlands prevail. These ranges serve as a barrier to the Sahara, sheltering the coastal lowlands of the three countries from the desert conditions to the south. They also function as orographic barriers to moisture-laden winter storms off the Atlantic and Mediterranean, causing rainfall in the coastal lowlands. Finally, they serve as vast water towers, capturing rain and snow and giving rise to numerous permanent rivers and streams. As a result, the northern portions of the three Maghrib countries are relatively well watered and have major agricultural potential. This potential has long fostered relatively dense settlement by the Berbers—indigenous Caucasoid tribal peoples—particularly in the mountains. The region's agricultural potential has attracted colonizers, beginning with the Phoenicians and Romans, then later the Arabs and French. Europeans have referred to the Maghrib highlands as the Atlas Mountains since classical times, because of the Greek legend that they were the home of the god Atlas; the Arabs have referred to the entire highland area as Jazirat al-Maghrib, the "Island of the West," because it represented a relatively lush mountainous island jutting out of the deserts.
The most impressive range within the Atlas system is the High Atlas, which extends for some 350 miles (560 km) through the center of Morocco and has an average elevation of around 10,000 feet (3,050 m). Many High Atlas peaks are snow-clad for much of the year. Jabal Toukal, south of Marrakech, reaches 13,665 feet (4,165 m) and is the highest peak in the High Atlas as well as in North Africa. The Middle Atlas range possesses the most luxuriant vegetation in the Atlas system, with extensive stands of fir and cedar at higher elevations. Forests of various species of oak are common on the more humid slopes throughout the Atlas system, with open stands of pine and juniper typical on drier slopes. Generally, the mountains diminish in elevation from west to east and become more barren of vegetation from north to south.
Historically, the Atlas Mountains have functioned as a refuge area for the indigenous Berber peoples, helping them to preserve their distinctive languages and customs. Portions of the Moroccan Atlas and the Kabylie in Algeria remain strong bastions of Berber culture. Tribal areas in the Atlas had autonomy in the precolonial period; only occasionally did they fall under the control of rulers in the lowland capitals. This tradition of dissidence continued during the colonial period: The Atlas Mountains figured prominently in the resistance and independence movements, serving as effective strongholds for rebel groups